🚀 [AR] Fill book chapter

book/src/SUMMARY.md

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
 - [Introduction](introduction.md)
 - [Kalman filter](kf_linear.md)
 - [Simple optimizers](simple_optimizers.md)
-- [Autoregressive models AR(p)]()
+- [Autoregressive models AR(p)](ar_models.md)

book/src/ar_models.md

@@ -0,0 +1,299 @@
+
+# Autoregressive models
+
+This chapter documents a header-only implementation of an Autoregressive model AR(*p*) in modern C++.  
+It explains the class template, the OLS and Yule–Walker estimators, and small-but-important C++ details you asked about.
+
+## AR(p) refresher
+
+An AR(*p*) process is
+$$
+X_t = c + \phi_1 X_{t-1} + \cdots + \phi_p X_{t-p} + \varepsilon_t,
+$$
+with intercept $c$, coefficients $\phi_i$, and i.i.d. noise $\varepsilon_t \sim (0,\sigma^2)$.
+
+## Header overview
+
+```cpp
+#pragma once
+#include <Eigen/Dense>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <numeric>
+
+namespace cppx::ar_models {
+
+template <int order> class ARModel {
+  public:
+    using Vector = Eigen::Matrix<double, order, 1>;
+
+    ARModel() = default;
+    ARModel(double intercept, double noise_variance) : c_(intercept), sigma2_(noise_variance){};
+
+    [[nodiscard]] double intercept() const noexcept { return c_; }
+    [[nodiscard]] double noise() const noexcept { return sigma2_; }
+    [[nodiscard]] const Vector &coefficients() const noexcept { return phi_; }
+
+    void set_coefficients(const Vector &phi) { phi_ = phi; }
+    void set_intercept(double c) { c_ = c; }
+    void set_noise(double noise) { sigma2_ = noise; }
+
+    double forecast_one_step(const std::vector<double> &hist) const {
+        if (static_cast<int>(hist.size()) < order) {
+            throw std::invalid_argument("History shorter than model order");
+        }
+        double y = c_;
+        for (int i = 0; i < order; ++i) {
+            y += phi_(i) * hist[i];
+        }
+        return y;
+    }
+
+  private:
+    Vector phi_;
+    double c_ = 0.0;
+    double sigma2_ = 1.0;
+};
+```
+Notes
+- `using Vector = Eigen::Matrix<double, order, 1>;` is the correct Eigen alias (there is no `Eigen::Vector<double, N>` type).
+- Defaulted constructor + in-class member initializers (C++11) keep initialization simple.
+- `[[nodiscard]]` marks return values that shouldn’t be ignored.
+- `static_cast<int>` is used because `std::vector::size()` returns `size_t` (unsigned), while Eigen commonly uses `int` sizes.
+
+## Forecasting (one-step)
+
+```cpp
+double forecast_one_step(const std::vector<double> &hist) const {
+    if (static_cast<int>(hist.size()) < order) {
+        throw std::invalid_argument("History shorter than model order");
+    }
+    double y = c_;
+    for (int i = 0; i < order; ++i) {
+        y += phi_(i) * hist[i];            // hist[0]=X_T, hist[1]=X_{T-1}, ...
+    }
+    return y;
+}
+```
+The one-step-ahead plug‑in forecast $\hat X_{T+1|T}$ equals $c + \sum_{i=1}^p \phi_i X_{T+1-i}$.
+
+## OLS estimator (header-only)
+
+Mathematically, we fit
+
+$$
+X_t = c + \phi_1 X_{t-1} + \cdots + \phi_p X_{t-p} + \varepsilon_t.
+$$
+
+Define:
+
+- $Y = (X_{p}, X_{p+1}, \dots, X_T)^\top \in \mathbb{R}^{n}$, where $n = T-p$.
+- $X \in \mathbb{R}^{n \times (p+1)}$ the **design matrix**:
+
+$$
+X =
+\begin{bmatrix}
+1 & X_{p-1} & X_{p-2} & \cdots & X_{0} \\\\
+1 & X_{p}   & X_{p-1} & \cdots & X_{1} \\\\
+\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots \\\\
+1 & X_{T-1} & X_{T-2} & \cdots & X_{T-p}
+\end{bmatrix}.
+$$
+
+The regression model is
+
+$$
+Y = X \beta + \varepsilon, \quad
+\beta =
+\begin{bmatrix}
+c \\ \phi_1 \\ \vdots \\ \phi_p
+\end{bmatrix}.
+$$
+
+The **OLS estimator** is
+
+$$
+\hat\beta = (X^\top X)^{-1} X^\top Y.
+$$
+
+Residual variance estimate:
+
+$$
+\hat\sigma^2 = \frac{1}{n-(p+1)} \|Y - X\hat\beta\|_2^2.
+$$
+
+In code, we solve this with Eigen’s QR decomposition:
+
+```cpp
+Eigen::VectorXd beta = X.colPivHouseholderQr().solve(Y);
+```
+
+```cpp
+template <int order>
+ARModel<order> fit_ar_ols(const std::vector<double> &x) {
+    if (static_cast<int>(x.size()) <= order) {
+        throw std::invalid_argument("Time series too short for AR(order)");
+    }
+    const int T = static_cast<int>(x.size());
+    const int n = T - order;
+
+    Eigen::MatrixXd X(n, order + 1);
+    Eigen::VectorXd Y(n);
+
+    for (int t = 0; t < n; ++t) {
+        Y(t) = x[order + t];
+        X(t, 0) = 1.0;                          // intercept column
+        for (int j = 0; j < order; ++j) {
+            X(t, j + 1) = x[order + t - 1 - j]; // lagged regressors (most-recent-first)
+        }
+    }
+
+    Eigen::VectorXd beta = X.colPivHouseholderQr().solve(Y);
+    Eigen::VectorXd resid = Y - X * beta;
+    const double sigma2 = resid.squaredNorm() / static_cast<double>(n - (order + 1));
+
+    typename ARModel<order>::Vector phi;
+    for (int j = 0; j < order; ++j) phi(j) = beta(j + 1);
+
+    ARModel<order> model;
+    model.set_coefficients(phi);
+    model.set_intercept(beta(0));   // beta(0) is the intercept
+    model.set_noise(sigma2);
+    return model;
+}
+```
+
+## Yule–Walker (Levinson–Durbin)
+
+The AR($p$) autocovariance equations are:
+
+$$
+\gamma_k = \sum_{i=1}^p \phi_i \gamma_{k-i}, \quad k = 1, \dots, p,
+$$
+
+where $\gamma_k = \text{Cov}(X_t, X_{t-k})$.
+
+This leads to the **Yule–Walker system**:
+
+$$
+\begin{bmatrix}
+\gamma_0 & \gamma_1 & \cdots & \gamma_{p-1} \\\\
+\gamma_1 & \gamma_0 & \cdots & \gamma_{p-2} \\\\
+\vdots   & \vdots   & \ddots & \vdots \\\\
+\gamma_{p-1} & \gamma_{p-2} & \cdots & \gamma_0
+\end{bmatrix}
+\begin{bmatrix}
+\phi_1 \\\\ \phi_2 \\\\ \vdots \\\\ \phi_p
+\end{bmatrix}
+=
+\begin{bmatrix}
+\gamma_1 \\\\ \gamma_2 \\\\ \vdots \\\\ \gamma_p
+\end{bmatrix}.
+$$
+
+We estimate autocovariances by
+
+$$
+\hat\gamma_k = \frac{1}{T} \sum_{t=k}^{T-1} (X_t-\bar X)(X_{t-k}-\bar X).
+$$
+
+### Levinson–Durbin recursion
+
+Efficiently solves the Toeplitz system in $O(p^2)$ time.  
+At each step:
+
+- Update reflection coefficient $\kappa_m$,
+- Update AR coefficients $a_j$,
+- Update innovation variance
+
+$$
+E_m = E_{m-1}(1 - \kappa_m^2).
+$$
+
+The final variance $E_p$ is the residual variance estimate.
+
+
+```cpp
+inline double _sample_mean(const std::vector<double> &x) {
+    return std::accumulate(x.begin(), x.end(), 0.0) / x.size();
+}
+inline double _sample_autocov(const std::vector<double> &x, int k) {
+    const int T = static_cast<int>(x.size());
+    if (k >= T) throw std::invalid_argument("lag too large");
+    const double mu = _sample_mean(x);
+    double acc = 0.0;
+    for (int t = k; t < T; ++t) acc += (x[t]-mu) * (x[t-k]-mu);
+    return acc / static_cast<double>(T);
+}
+```
+- `std::vector` has no `.mean()`; we compute it with `std::accumulate` (from `<numeric>`).  
+- For compile-time sizes (since `order` is a template parameter) we can use `std::array<double, order+1>` to hold autocovariances.
+
+Levinson–Durbin recursion:
+```cpp
+template <int order>
+ARModel<order> fit_ar_yule_walkter(const std::vector<double> &x) {
+    static_assert(order >= 1, "Yule–Walker needs order >= 1");
+    if (static_cast<int>(x.size()) <= order) {
+        throw std::invalid_argument("Time series too short for AR(order)");
+    }
+
+    std::array<double, order + 1> r{};
+    for (int k = 0; k <= order; ++k) r[k] = _sample_autocov(x, k);
+
+    typename ARModel<order>::Vector a; a.setZero();
+    double E = r[0];
+    if (std::abs(E) < 1e-15) throw std::runtime_error("Zero variance");
+
+    for (int m = 1; m <= order; ++m) {
+        double acc = r[m];
+        for (int j = 1; j < m; ++j) acc -= a(j - 1) * r[m - j];
+        const double kappa = acc / E;
+
+        typename ARModel<order>::Vector a_new = a;
+        a_new(m - 1) = kappa;
+        for (int j = 1; j < m; ++j) a_new(j - 1) = a(j - 1) - kappa * a(m - j - 1);
+        a = a_new;
+
+        E *= (1.0 - kappa * kappa);
+        if (E <= 0) throw std::runtime_error("Non-positive innovation variance in recursion");
+    }
+
+    const double xbar = _sample_mean(x);
+    const double c = (1.0 - a.sum()) * xbar;   // intercept so that mean(model) == sample mean
+
+    ARModel<order> model;
+    model.set_coefficients(a);
+    model.set_intercept(c);
+    model.set_noise(E);
+    return model;
+}
+```
+
+## Small questions I asked myself while implementing this
+
+- The class holds parameters + forecasting but the algorithms live outside. This way, I can add/replace estimators without modifying the class.
+
+- `typename ARModel<order>::Vector` — why the `typename`? Inside templates, dependent names might be types or values. `typename` tells the compiler it’s a type.
+
+- `std::array` vs `std::vector`? `std::array<T,N>` is fixed-size (size known at compile time) and stack-allocated while `std::vector<T>` is dynamic-size (runtime) and heap-allocated.
+
+- Why `static_cast<int>(hist.size())`? `.size()` returns `size_t` (unsigned). Converting explicitly avoids signed/unsigned warnings and matches Eigen’s int-based indices.
+
+## Example of usage
+
+```cpp
+#include "ar.hpp"
+#include <iostream>
+#include <vector>
+
+int main() {
+    std::vector<double> x = {0.1, 0.3, 0.7, 0.8, 1.2, 1.0, 0.9};
+
+    auto m = fit_ar_ols<2>(x);
+    std::cout << "c=" << m.intercept() << ", sigma^2=" << m.noise()
+              << ", phi=" << m.coefficients().transpose() << "\n";
+
+    std::vector<double> hist = {x.back(), x[x.size()-2]}; // [X_T, X_{T-1}]
+    std::cout << "one-step forecast: " << m.forecast_one_step(hist) << "\n";
+}
+```