diff --git a/core/types/hashes.go b/core/types/hashes.go
index 05cfaeed748..22f1f946dc3 100644
--- a/core/types/hashes.go
+++ b/core/types/hashes.go
@@ -45,4 +45,7 @@ var (
 
 	// EmptyVerkleHash is the known hash of an empty verkle trie.
 	EmptyVerkleHash = common.Hash{}
+
+	// EmptyBinaryHash is the known hash of an empty binary trie.
+	EmptyBinaryHash = common.Hash{}
 )
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/binary_node.go b/trie/bintrie/binary_node.go
index 50d8c0b3ca1..1c003a6c8fd 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/binary_node.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/binary_node.go
@@ -43,8 +43,7 @@ const (
 // BinaryNode is an interface for a binary trie node.
 type BinaryNode interface {
 	Get([]byte, NodeResolverFn) ([]byte, error)
-	Insert([]byte, []byte, NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNode, error)
-	// Commit() common.Hash
+	Insert([]byte, []byte, NodeResolverFn, int) (BinaryNode, error)
 	Copy() BinaryNode
 	Hash() common.Hash
 	GetValuesAtStem([]byte, NodeResolverFn) ([][]byte, error)
@@ -65,7 +64,7 @@ func SerializeNode(node BinaryNode) []byte {
 		copy(serialized[33:65], n.right.Hash().Bytes())
 		return serialized[:]
 	case *StemNode:
-		var serialized [32 + 256*32]byte
+		var serialized [32 + 32 + 256*32]byte
 		serialized[0] = nodeTypeStem
 		copy(serialized[1:32], node.(*StemNode).Stem)
 		bitmap := serialized[32:64]
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/empty.go b/trie/bintrie/empty.go
index 1effd7f03a0..7cfe373b35b 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/empty.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/empty.go
@@ -28,12 +28,13 @@ func (e Empty) Get(_ []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) ([]byte, error) {
 	return nil, nil
 }
 
-func (e Empty) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNode, error) {
+func (e Empty) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, _ NodeResolverFn, depth int) (BinaryNode, error) {
 	var values [256][]byte
 	values[key[31]] = value
 	return &StemNode{
 		Stem:   slices.Clone(key[:31]),
 		Values: values[:],
+		depth:  depth,
 	}, nil
 }
 
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/empty_test.go b/trie/bintrie/empty_test.go
index a3c3681cad6..574ae1830be 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/empty_test.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/empty_test.go
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ func TestEmptyInsert(t *testing.T) {
 	key[31] = 0x34
 	value := common.HexToHash("0xabcd").Bytes()
 
-	newNode, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil)
+	newNode, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("Failed to insert: %v", err)
 	}
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/hashed_node.go b/trie/bintrie/hashed_node.go
index 05e50db9fbf..8f9fd66a59a 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/hashed_node.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/hashed_node.go
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ func (h HashedNode) Get(_ []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) ([]byte, error) {
 	panic("not implemented") // TODO: Implement
 }
 
-func (h HashedNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, resolver NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNode, error) {
+func (h HashedNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, resolver NodeResolverFn, depth int) (BinaryNode, error) {
 	return nil, errors.New("insert not implemented for hashed node")
 }
 
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/hashed_node_test.go b/trie/bintrie/hashed_node_test.go
index 78f8ad72af7..0c19ae0c57d 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/hashed_node_test.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/hashed_node_test.go
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ func TestHashedNodeInsert(t *testing.T) {
 	key := make([]byte, 32)
 	value := make([]byte, 32)
 
-	_, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil)
+	_, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil, 0)
 	if err == nil {
 		t.Fatal("Expected error for Insert on HashedNode")
 	}
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/internal_node.go b/trie/bintrie/internal_node.go
index af9fce5ef95..70dc54a93b0 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/internal_node.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/internal_node.go
@@ -17,25 +17,22 @@
 package bintrie
 
 import (
+	"crypto/sha256"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
-	"crypto/sha256"
 )
 
 func keyToPath(depth int, key []byte) ([]byte, error) {
-	path := make([]byte, 0, depth+1)
-
 	if depth > 31*8 {
 		return nil, errors.New("node too deep")
 	}
-
+	path := make([]byte, 0, depth+1)
 	for i := range depth + 1 {
 		bit := key[i/8] >> (7 - (i % 8)) & 1
 		path = append(path, bit)
 	}
-
 	return path, nil
 }
 
@@ -81,16 +78,16 @@ func (bt *InternalNode) GetValuesAtStem(stem []byte, resolver NodeResolverFn) ([
 func (bt *InternalNode) Get(key []byte, resolver NodeResolverFn) ([]byte, error) {
 	values, err := bt.GetValuesAtStem(key[:31], resolver)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("Get error: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("get error: %w", err)
 	}
 	return values[key[31]], nil
 }
 
 // Insert inserts a new key-value pair into the trie.
-func (bt *InternalNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, resolver NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNode, error) {
+func (bt *InternalNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, resolver NodeResolverFn, depth int) (BinaryNode, error) {
 	var values [256][]byte
 	values[key[31]] = value
-	return bt.InsertValuesAtStem(key[:31], values[:], resolver, 0)
+	return bt.InsertValuesAtStem(key[:31], values[:], resolver, depth)
 }
 
 // Copy creates a deep copy of the node.
@@ -121,11 +118,11 @@ func (bt *InternalNode) Hash() common.Hash {
 // InsertValuesAtStem inserts a full value group at the given stem in the internal node.
 // Already-existing values will be overwritten.
 func (bt *InternalNode) InsertValuesAtStem(stem []byte, values [][]byte, resolver NodeResolverFn, depth int) (BinaryNode, error) {
-	bit := stem[bt.depth/8] >> (7 - (bt.depth % 8)) & 1
 	var (
 		child *BinaryNode
 		err   error
 	)
+	bit := stem[bt.depth/8] >> (7 - (bt.depth % 8)) & 1
 	if bit == 0 {
 		child = &bt.left
 	} else {
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/internal_node_test.go b/trie/bintrie/internal_node_test.go
index 976e677177f..158d8b7147d 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/internal_node_test.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/internal_node_test.go
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ func TestInternalNodeInsert(t *testing.T) {
 	leftKey[31] = 10
 	leftValue := common.HexToHash("0x0101").Bytes()
 
-	newNode, err := node.Insert(leftKey, leftValue, nil)
+	newNode, err := node.Insert(leftKey, leftValue, nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("Failed to insert: %v", err)
 	}
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/iterator.go b/trie/bintrie/iterator.go
index ebe0162177b..66564778125 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/iterator.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/iterator.go
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ func (it *binaryNodeIterator) Next(descend bool) bool {
 		return it.Next(descend)
 	case HashedNode:
 		// resolve the node
-		data, err := it.trie.FlatdbNodeResolver(it.Path(), common.Hash(node))
+		data, err := it.trie.nodeResolver(it.Path(), common.Hash(node))
 		if err != nil {
 			panic(err)
 		}
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/key_encoding.go b/trie/bintrie/key_encoding.go
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..13c20573710
--- /dev/null
+++ b/trie/bintrie/key_encoding.go
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+// Copyright 2025 go-ethereum Authors
+// This file is part of the go-ethereum library.
+//
+// The go-ethereum library is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+// it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+// the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
+// (at your option) any later version.
+//
+// The go-ethereum library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+// but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+// MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
+// GNU Lesser General Public License for more details.
+//
+// You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public License
+// along with the go-ethereum library. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
+
+package bintrie
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"crypto/sha256"
+
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
+	"github.com/holiman/uint256"
+)
+
+const (
+	BasicDataLeafKey        = 0
+	CodeHashLeafKey         = 1
+	BasicDataCodeSizeOffset = 5
+	BasicDataNonceOffset    = 8
+	BasicDataBalanceOffset  = 16
+)
+
+var (
+	zeroHash   = common.Hash{}
+	codeOffset = uint256.NewInt(128)
+)
+
+func GetBinaryTreeKey(addr common.Address, key []byte) []byte {
+	hasher := sha256.New()
+	hasher.Write(zeroHash[:12])
+	hasher.Write(addr[:])
+	hasher.Write(key[:31])
+	k := hasher.Sum(nil)
+	k[31] = key[31]
+	return k
+}
+
+func GetBinaryTreeKeyCodeHash(addr common.Address) []byte {
+	var k [32]byte
+	k[31] = CodeHashLeafKey
+	return GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, k[:])
+}
+
+func GetBinaryTreeKeyStorageSlot(address common.Address, key []byte) []byte {
+	var k [32]byte
+
+	// Case when the key belongs to the account header
+	if bytes.Equal(key[:31], zeroHash[:31]) && key[31] < 64 {
+		k[31] = 64 + key[31]
+		return GetBinaryTreeKey(address, k[:])
+	}
+
+	// Set the main storage offset
+	// note that the first 64 bytes of the main offset storage
+	// are unreachable, which is consistent with the spec and
+	// what verkle does.
+	k[0] = 1 // 1 << 248
+	copy(k[1:], key[:31])
+	k[31] = key[31]
+
+	return GetBinaryTreeKey(address, k[:])
+}
+
+func GetBinaryTreeKeyCodeChunk(address common.Address, chunknr *uint256.Int) []byte {
+	chunkOffset := new(uint256.Int).Add(codeOffset, chunknr).Bytes()
+	return GetBinaryTreeKey(address, chunkOffset)
+}
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/stem_node.go b/trie/bintrie/stem_node.go
index 91f2482fdfb..7422175bd0e 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/stem_node.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/stem_node.go
@@ -18,12 +18,12 @@ package bintrie
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"crypto/sha256"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"slices"
 
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
-	"crypto/sha256"
 )
 
 // StemNode represents a group of `NodeWith` values sharing the same stem.
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ func (bt *StemNode) Get(key []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) ([]byte, error) {
 }
 
 // Insert inserts a new key-value pair into the node.
-func (bt *StemNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNode, error) {
+func (bt *StemNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, _ NodeResolverFn, depth int) (BinaryNode, error) {
 	if !bytes.Equal(bt.Stem, key[:31]) {
 		bitStem := bt.Stem[bt.depth/8] >> (7 - (bt.depth % 8)) & 1
 
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ func (bt *StemNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNo
 		bitKey := key[new.depth/8] >> (7 - (new.depth % 8)) & 1
 		if bitKey == bitStem {
 			var err error
-			*child, err = (*child).Insert(key, value, nil)
+			*child, err = (*child).Insert(key, value, nil, depth+1)
 			if err != nil {
 				return new, fmt.Errorf("insert error: %w", err)
 			}
@@ -70,16 +70,14 @@ func (bt *StemNode) Insert(key []byte, value []byte, _ NodeResolverFn) (BinaryNo
 			*other = &StemNode{
 				Stem:   slices.Clone(key[:31]),
 				Values: values[:],
-				depth:  new.depth + 1,
+				depth:  depth + 1,
 			}
 		}
-
 		return new, nil
 	}
 	if len(value) != 32 {
 		return bt, errors.New("invalid insertion: value length")
 	}
-
 	bt.Values[key[31]] = value
 	return bt, nil
 }
@@ -181,7 +179,6 @@ func (bt *StemNode) InsertValuesAtStem(key []byte, values [][]byte, _ NodeResolv
 				depth:  new.depth + 1,
 			}
 		}
-
 		return new, nil
 	}
 
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/stem_node_test.go b/trie/bintrie/stem_node_test.go
index 4eedb434925..e0ffd5c3c84 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/stem_node_test.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/stem_node_test.go
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ func TestStemNodeInsertSameStem(t *testing.T) {
 	key[31] = 10
 	value := common.HexToHash("0x0202").Bytes()
 
-	newNode, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil)
+	newNode, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("Failed to insert: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ func TestStemNodeInsertDifferentStem(t *testing.T) {
 	key[0] = 0x80 // First bit is 1 instead of 0
 	value := common.HexToHash("0x0202").Bytes()
 
-	newNode, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil)
+	newNode, err := node.Insert(key, value, nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("Failed to insert: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ func TestStemNodeInsertInvalidValueLength(t *testing.T) {
 	copy(key[:31], stem)
 	invalidValue := []byte{1, 2, 3} // Not 32 bytes
 
-	_, err := node.Insert(key, invalidValue, nil)
+	_, err := node.Insert(key, invalidValue, nil, 0)
 	if err == nil {
 		t.Fatal("Expected error for invalid value length")
 	}
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/trie.go b/trie/bintrie/trie.go
index ca4ac511f85..a309f64b66e 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/trie.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/trie.go
@@ -27,7 +27,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethdb"
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/trie"
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/trie/trienode"
-	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/trie/utils"
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/triedb/database"
 	"github.com/holiman/uint256"
 )
@@ -39,11 +38,10 @@ func NewBinaryNode() BinaryNode {
 	return Empty{}
 }
 
-// BinaryTrie is a wrapper around VerkleNode that implements the trie.Trie
-// interface so that Verkle trees can be reused verbatim.
+// BinaryTrie is the implementation of https://eips.ethereum.org/EIPS/eip-7864.
 type BinaryTrie struct {
 	root   BinaryNode
-	reader *trie.TrieReader
+	reader *trie.Reader
 	tracer *trie.PrevalueTracer
 }
 
@@ -55,36 +53,43 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) ToDot() string {
 
 // NewBinaryTrie creates a new binary trie.
 func NewBinaryTrie(root common.Hash, db database.NodeDatabase) (*BinaryTrie, error) {
-	reader, err := trie.NewTrieReader(root, common.Hash{}, db)
+	reader, err := trie.NewReader(root, common.Hash{}, db)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	// Parse the root verkle node if it's not empty.
-	node := NewBinaryNode()
-	if root != types.EmptyVerkleHash && root != types.EmptyRootHash {
-		blob, err := reader.Node(nil, common.Hash{})
+	t := &BinaryTrie{
+		root:   NewBinaryNode(),
+		reader: reader,
+		tracer: trie.NewPrevalueTracer(),
+	}
+	// Parse the root node if it's not empty
+	if root != types.EmptyBinaryHash && root != types.EmptyRootHash {
+		blob, err := t.nodeResolver(nil, root)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
-		node, err = DeserializeNode(blob, 0)
+		node, err := DeserializeNode(blob, 0)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
+		t.root = node
 	}
-	return &BinaryTrie{
-		root:   node,
-		reader: reader,
-	}, nil
+	return t, nil
 }
 
-// FlatdbNodeResolver is a node resolver that reads nodes from the flatdb.
-func (t *BinaryTrie) FlatdbNodeResolver(path []byte, hash common.Hash) ([]byte, error) {
+// nodeResolver is a node resolver that reads nodes from the flatdb.
+func (t *BinaryTrie) nodeResolver(path []byte, hash common.Hash) ([]byte, error) {
 	// empty nodes will be serialized as common.Hash{}, so capture
 	// this special use case.
 	if hash == (common.Hash{}) {
 		return nil, nil // empty node
 	}
-	return t.reader.Node(path, hash)
+	blob, err := t.reader.Node(path, hash)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	t.tracer.Put(path, blob)
+	return blob, nil
 }
 
 // GetKey returns the sha3 preimage of a hashed key that was previously used
@@ -93,30 +98,23 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) GetKey(key []byte) []byte {
 	return key
 }
 
-// Get returns the value for key stored in the trie. The value bytes must
-// not be modified by the caller. If a node was not found in the database, a
-// trie.MissingNodeError is returned.
-func (t *BinaryTrie) GetStorage(addr common.Address, key []byte) ([]byte, error) {
-	return t.root.Get(utils.GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, key), t.FlatdbNodeResolver)
-}
-
 // GetWithHashedKey returns the value, assuming that the key has already
 // been hashed.
 func (t *BinaryTrie) GetWithHashedKey(key []byte) ([]byte, error) {
-	return t.root.Get(key, t.FlatdbNodeResolver)
+	return t.root.Get(key, t.nodeResolver)
 }
 
 // GetAccount returns the account information for the given address.
 func (t *BinaryTrie) GetAccount(addr common.Address) (*types.StateAccount, error) {
-	acc := &types.StateAccount{}
-	versionkey := utils.GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, zero[:])
 	var (
 		values [][]byte
 		err    error
+		acc    = &types.StateAccount{}
+		key    = GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, zero[:])
 	)
 	switch r := t.root.(type) {
 	case *InternalNode:
-		values, err = r.GetValuesAtStem(versionkey[:31], t.FlatdbNodeResolver)
+		values, err = r.GetValuesAtStem(key[:31], t.nodeResolver)
 	case *StemNode:
 		values = r.Values
 	case Empty:
@@ -130,47 +128,53 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) GetAccount(addr common.Address) (*types.StateAccount, error
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("GetAccount (%x) error: %v", addr, err)
 	}
 
-	// The following code is required for the MPT->VKT conversion.
-	// An account can be partially migrated, where storage slots were moved to the VKT
+	// The following code is required for the MPT->Binary conversion.
+	// An account can be partially migrated, where storage slots were moved to the binary
 	// but not yet the account. This means some account information as (header) storage slots
-	// are in the VKT but basic account information must be read in the base tree (MPT).
+	// are in the binary trie but basic account information must be read in the base tree (MPT).
 	// TODO: we can simplify this logic depending if the conversion is in progress or finished.
 	emptyAccount := true
-
-	for i := 0; values != nil && i <= utils.CodeHashLeafKey && emptyAccount; i++ {
+	for i := 0; values != nil && i <= CodeHashLeafKey && emptyAccount; i++ {
 		emptyAccount = emptyAccount && values[i] == nil
 	}
 	if emptyAccount {
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	// if the account has been deleted, then values[10] will be 0 and not nil. If it has
+	// If the account has been deleted, then values[10] will be 0 and not nil. If it has
 	// been recreated after that, then its code keccak will NOT be 0. So return `nil` if
 	// the nonce, and values[10], and code keccak is 0.
-	if bytes.Equal(values[utils.BasicDataLeafKey], zero[:]) && len(values) > 10 && len(values[10]) > 0 && bytes.Equal(values[utils.CodeHashLeafKey], zero[:]) {
+	if bytes.Equal(values[BasicDataLeafKey], zero[:]) && len(values) > 10 && len(values[10]) > 0 && bytes.Equal(values[CodeHashLeafKey], zero[:]) {
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	acc.Nonce = binary.BigEndian.Uint64(values[utils.BasicDataLeafKey][utils.BasicDataNonceOffset:])
+	acc.Nonce = binary.BigEndian.Uint64(values[BasicDataLeafKey][BasicDataNonceOffset:])
 	var balance [16]byte
-	copy(balance[:], values[utils.BasicDataLeafKey][utils.BasicDataBalanceOffset:])
+	copy(balance[:], values[BasicDataLeafKey][BasicDataBalanceOffset:])
 	acc.Balance = new(uint256.Int).SetBytes(balance[:])
-	acc.CodeHash = values[utils.CodeHashLeafKey]
+	acc.CodeHash = values[CodeHashLeafKey]
 
 	return acc, nil
 }
 
+// GetStorage returns the value for key stored in the trie. The value bytes must
+// not be modified by the caller. If a node was not found in the database, a
+// trie.MissingNodeError is returned.
+func (t *BinaryTrie) GetStorage(addr common.Address, key []byte) ([]byte, error) {
+	return t.root.Get(GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, key), t.nodeResolver)
+}
+
 // UpdateAccount updates the account information for the given address.
 func (t *BinaryTrie) UpdateAccount(addr common.Address, acc *types.StateAccount, codeLen int) error {
 	var (
 		err       error
 		basicData [32]byte
 		values    = make([][]byte, NodeWidth)
-		stem      = utils.GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, zero[:])
+		stem      = GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, zero[:])
 	)
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(basicData[BasicDataCodeSizeOffset-1:], uint32(codeLen))
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint64(basicData[BasicDataNonceOffset:], acc.Nonce)
 
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(basicData[utils.BasicDataCodeSizeOffset-1:], uint32(codeLen))
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint64(basicData[utils.BasicDataNonceOffset:], acc.Nonce)
 	// Because the balance is a max of 16 bytes, truncate
 	// the extra values. This happens in devmode, where
 	// 0xff**32 is allocated to the developer account.
@@ -181,33 +185,33 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) UpdateAccount(addr common.Address, acc *types.StateAccount,
 		balanceBytes = balanceBytes[16:]
 	}
 	copy(basicData[32-len(balanceBytes):], balanceBytes[:])
-	values[utils.BasicDataLeafKey] = basicData[:]
-	values[utils.CodeHashLeafKey] = acc.CodeHash[:]
+	values[BasicDataLeafKey] = basicData[:]
+	values[CodeHashLeafKey] = acc.CodeHash[:]
 
-	t.root, err = t.root.InsertValuesAtStem(stem, values, t.FlatdbNodeResolver, 0)
+	t.root, err = t.root.InsertValuesAtStem(stem, values, t.nodeResolver, 0)
 	return err
 }
 
 // UpdateStem updates the values for the given stem key.
 func (t *BinaryTrie) UpdateStem(key []byte, values [][]byte) error {
 	var err error
-	t.root, err = t.root.InsertValuesAtStem(key, values, t.FlatdbNodeResolver, 0)
+	t.root, err = t.root.InsertValuesAtStem(key, values, t.nodeResolver, 0)
 	return err
 }
 
-// Update associates key with value in the trie. If value has length zero, any
+// UpdateStorage associates key with value in the trie. If value has length zero, any
 // existing value is deleted from the trie. The value bytes must not be modified
 // by the caller while they are stored in the trie. If a node was not found in the
 // database, a trie.MissingNodeError is returned.
 func (t *BinaryTrie) UpdateStorage(address common.Address, key, value []byte) error {
-	k := utils.GetBinaryTreeKeyStorageSlot(address, key)
+	k := GetBinaryTreeKeyStorageSlot(address, key)
 	var v [32]byte
 	if len(value) >= 32 {
 		copy(v[:], value[:32])
 	} else {
 		copy(v[32-len(value):], value[:])
 	}
-	root, err := t.root.Insert(k, v[:], t.FlatdbNodeResolver)
+	root, err := t.root.Insert(k, v[:], t.nodeResolver, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("UpdateStorage (%x) error: %v", address, err)
 	}
@@ -220,12 +224,12 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) DeleteAccount(addr common.Address) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-// Delete removes any existing value for key from the trie. If a node was not
+// DeleteStorage removes any existing value for key from the trie. If a node was not
 // found in the database, a trie.MissingNodeError is returned.
 func (t *BinaryTrie) DeleteStorage(addr common.Address, key []byte) error {
-	k := utils.GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, key)
+	k := GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, key)
 	var zero [32]byte
-	root, err := t.root.Insert(k, zero[:], t.FlatdbNodeResolver)
+	root, err := t.root.Insert(k, zero[:], t.nodeResolver, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("DeleteStorage (%x) error: %v", addr, err)
 	}
@@ -290,6 +294,8 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) IsVerkle() bool {
 	return true
 }
 
+// UpdateContractCode updates the contract code into the trie.
+//
 // Note: the basic data leaf needs to have been previously created for this to work
 func (t *BinaryTrie) UpdateContractCode(addr common.Address, codeHash common.Hash, code []byte) error {
 	var (
@@ -304,7 +310,7 @@ func (t *BinaryTrie) UpdateContractCode(addr common.Address, codeHash common.Has
 			values = make([][]byte, NodeWidth)
 			var offset [32]byte
 			binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(offset[24:], chunknr+128)
-			key = utils.GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, offset[:])
+			key = GetBinaryTreeKey(addr, offset[:])
 		}
 		values[groupOffset] = chunks[i : i+32]
 
diff --git a/trie/bintrie/trie_test.go b/trie/bintrie/trie_test.go
index f0a9c8b8b01..84f76895494 100644
--- a/trie/bintrie/trie_test.go
+++ b/trie/bintrie/trie_test.go
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ var (
 
 func TestSingleEntry(t *testing.T) {
 	tree := NewBinaryNode()
-	tree, err := tree.Insert(zeroKey[:], oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err := tree.Insert(zeroKey[:], oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -52,11 +52,11 @@ func TestSingleEntry(t *testing.T) {
 func TestTwoEntriesDiffFirstBit(t *testing.T) {
 	var err error
 	tree := NewBinaryNode()
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(zeroKey[:], oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(zeroKey[:], oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("8000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("8000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -71,19 +71,19 @@ func TestTwoEntriesDiffFirstBit(t *testing.T) {
 func TestOneStemColocatedValues(t *testing.T) {
 	var err error
 	tree := NewBinaryNode()
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003").Bytes(), oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003").Bytes(), oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000009").Bytes(), threeKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000009").Bytes(), threeKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000FF").Bytes(), fourKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000FF").Bytes(), fourKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -96,20 +96,20 @@ func TestTwoStemColocatedValues(t *testing.T) {
 	var err error
 	tree := NewBinaryNode()
 	// stem: 0...0
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003").Bytes(), oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003").Bytes(), oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	// stem: 10...0
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("8000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003").Bytes(), oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("8000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003").Bytes(), oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("8000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(common.HexToHash("8000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004").Bytes(), twoKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -124,11 +124,11 @@ func TestTwoKeysMatchFirst42Bits(t *testing.T) {
 	// key1 and key 2 have the same prefix of 42 bits (b0*42+b1+b1) and differ after.
 	key1 := common.HexToHash("0000000000C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0").Bytes()
 	key2 := common.HexToHash("0000000000E00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000").Bytes()
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(key1, oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(key1, oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(key2, twoKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(key2, twoKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -139,11 +139,11 @@ func TestTwoKeysMatchFirst42Bits(t *testing.T) {
 func TestInsertDuplicateKey(t *testing.T) {
 	var err error
 	tree := NewBinaryNode()
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(oneKey[:], oneKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(oneKey[:], oneKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	tree, err = tree.Insert(oneKey[:], twoKey[:], nil)
+	tree, err = tree.Insert(oneKey[:], twoKey[:], nil, 0)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ func TestLargeNumberOfEntries(t *testing.T) {
 	for i := range 256 {
 		var key [32]byte
 		key[0] = byte(i)
-		tree, err = tree.Insert(key[:], ffKey[:], nil)
+		tree, err = tree.Insert(key[:], ffKey[:], nil, 0)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ func TestMerkleizeMultipleEntries(t *testing.T) {
 	for i, key := range keys {
 		var v [32]byte
 		binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(v[:8], uint64(i))
-		tree, err = tree.Insert(key, v[:], nil)
+		tree, err = tree.Insert(key, v[:], nil, 0)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
diff --git a/trie/proof.go b/trie/proof.go
index f9bc674d520..1a06ed5d5e3 100644
--- a/trie/proof.go
+++ b/trie/proof.go
@@ -571,7 +571,7 @@ func VerifyRangeProof(rootHash common.Hash, firstKey []byte, keys [][]byte, valu
 		root:           root,
 		reader:         newEmptyReader(),
 		opTracer:       newOpTracer(),
-		prevalueTracer: newPrevalueTracer(),
+		prevalueTracer: NewPrevalueTracer(),
 	}
 	if empty {
 		tr.root = nil
diff --git a/trie/tracer.go b/trie/tracer.go
index 184a5133254..04122d1384f 100644
--- a/trie/tracer.go
+++ b/trie/tracer.go
@@ -104,17 +104,17 @@ type PrevalueTracer struct {
 	lock sync.RWMutex
 }
 
-// newPrevalueTracer initializes the tracer for capturing resolved trie nodes.
-func newPrevalueTracer() *PrevalueTracer {
+// NewPrevalueTracer initializes the tracer for capturing resolved trie nodes.
+func NewPrevalueTracer() *PrevalueTracer {
 	return &PrevalueTracer{
 		data: make(map[string][]byte),
 	}
 }
 
-// put tracks the newly loaded trie node and caches its RLP-encoded
+// Put tracks the newly loaded trie node and caches its RLP-encoded
 // blob internally. Do not modify the value outside this function,
 // as it is not deep-copied.
-func (t *PrevalueTracer) put(path []byte, val []byte) {
+func (t *PrevalueTracer) Put(path []byte, val []byte) {
 	t.lock.Lock()
 	defer t.lock.Unlock()
 
@@ -130,9 +130,9 @@ func (t *PrevalueTracer) Get(path []byte) []byte {
 	return t.data[string(path)]
 }
 
-// hasList returns a list of flags indicating whether the corresponding trie nodes
+// HasList returns a list of flags indicating whether the corresponding trie nodes
 // specified by the path exist in the trie.
-func (t *PrevalueTracer) hasList(list [][]byte) []bool {
+func (t *PrevalueTracer) HasList(list [][]byte) []bool {
 	t.lock.RLock()
 	defer t.lock.RUnlock()
 
@@ -144,24 +144,24 @@ func (t *PrevalueTracer) hasList(list [][]byte) []bool {
 	return exists
 }
 
-// values returns a list of values of the cached trie nodes.
-func (t *PrevalueTracer) values() map[string][]byte {
+// Values returns a list of values of the cached trie nodes.
+func (t *PrevalueTracer) Values() map[string][]byte {
 	t.lock.RLock()
 	defer t.lock.RUnlock()
 
 	return maps.Clone(t.data)
 }
 
-// reset resets the cached content in the prevalueTracer.
-func (t *PrevalueTracer) reset() {
+// Reset resets the cached content in the prevalueTracer.
+func (t *PrevalueTracer) Reset() {
 	t.lock.Lock()
 	defer t.lock.Unlock()
 
 	clear(t.data)
 }
 
-// copy returns a copied prevalueTracer instance.
-func (t *PrevalueTracer) copy() *PrevalueTracer {
+// Copy returns a copied prevalueTracer instance.
+func (t *PrevalueTracer) Copy() *PrevalueTracer {
 	t.lock.RLock()
 	defer t.lock.RUnlock()
 
diff --git a/trie/trie.go b/trie/trie.go
index 9ff13c50c02..630462f8ca5 100644
--- a/trie/trie.go
+++ b/trie/trie.go
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ type Trie struct {
 	uncommitted int
 
 	// reader is the handler trie can retrieve nodes from.
-	reader *TrieReader
+	reader *Reader
 
 	// Various tracers for capturing the modifications to trie
 	opTracer       *opTracer
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ func (t *Trie) Copy() *Trie {
 		uncommitted:    t.uncommitted,
 		reader:         t.reader,
 		opTracer:       t.opTracer.copy(),
-		prevalueTracer: t.prevalueTracer.copy(),
+		prevalueTracer: t.prevalueTracer.Copy(),
 	}
 }
 
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ func (t *Trie) Copy() *Trie {
 // empty, otherwise, the root node must be present in database or returns
 // a MissingNodeError if not.
 func New(id *ID, db database.NodeDatabase) (*Trie, error) {
-	reader, err := NewTrieReader(id.StateRoot, id.Owner, db)
+	reader, err := NewReader(id.StateRoot, id.Owner, db)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ func New(id *ID, db database.NodeDatabase) (*Trie, error) {
 		owner:          id.Owner,
 		reader:         reader,
 		opTracer:       newOpTracer(),
-		prevalueTracer: newPrevalueTracer(),
+		prevalueTracer: NewPrevalueTracer(),
 	}
 	if id.Root != (common.Hash{}) && id.Root != types.EmptyRootHash {
 		rootnode, err := trie.resolveAndTrack(id.Root[:], nil)
@@ -659,7 +659,7 @@ func (t *Trie) resolveAndTrack(n hashNode, prefix []byte) (node, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	t.prevalueTracer.put(prefix, blob)
+	t.prevalueTracer.Put(prefix, blob)
 
 	// The returned node blob won't be changed afterward. No need to
 	// deep-copy the slice.
@@ -673,7 +673,7 @@ func (t *Trie) deletedNodes() [][]byte {
 	var (
 		pos   int
 		list  = t.opTracer.deletedList()
-		flags = t.prevalueTracer.hasList(list)
+		flags = t.prevalueTracer.HasList(list)
 	)
 	for i := 0; i < len(list); i++ {
 		if flags[i] {
@@ -753,7 +753,7 @@ func (t *Trie) hashRoot() []byte {
 
 // Witness returns a set containing all trie nodes that have been accessed.
 func (t *Trie) Witness() map[string][]byte {
-	return t.prevalueTracer.values()
+	return t.prevalueTracer.Values()
 }
 
 // Reset drops the referenced root node and cleans all internal state.
@@ -763,6 +763,6 @@ func (t *Trie) Reset() {
 	t.unhashed = 0
 	t.uncommitted = 0
 	t.opTracer.reset()
-	t.prevalueTracer.reset()
+	t.prevalueTracer.Reset()
 	t.committed = false
 }
diff --git a/trie/trie_reader.go b/trie/trie_reader.go
index b776709d254..42fe4d72c7b 100644
--- a/trie/trie_reader.go
+++ b/trie/trie_reader.go
@@ -22,39 +22,39 @@ import (
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/triedb/database"
 )
 
-// TrieReader is a wrapper of the underlying node reader. It's not safe
+// Reader is a wrapper of the underlying database reader. It's not safe
 // for concurrent usage.
-type TrieReader struct {
+type Reader struct {
 	owner  common.Hash
 	reader database.NodeReader
 	banned map[string]struct{} // Marker to prevent node from being accessed, for tests
 }
 
-// NewTrieReader initializes the trie reader with the given node reader.
-func NewTrieReader(stateRoot, owner common.Hash, db database.NodeDatabase) (*TrieReader, error) {
+// NewReader initializes the trie reader with the given database reader.
+func NewReader(stateRoot, owner common.Hash, db database.NodeDatabase) (*Reader, error) {
 	if stateRoot == (common.Hash{}) || stateRoot == types.EmptyRootHash {
-		return &TrieReader{owner: owner}, nil
+		return &Reader{owner: owner}, nil
 	}
 	reader, err := db.NodeReader(stateRoot)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, &MissingNodeError{Owner: owner, NodeHash: stateRoot, err: err}
 	}
-	return &TrieReader{owner: owner, reader: reader}, nil
+	return &Reader{owner: owner, reader: reader}, nil
 }
 
 // newEmptyReader initializes the pure in-memory reader. All read operations
 // should be forbidden and returns the MissingNodeError.
-func newEmptyReader() *TrieReader {
-	return &TrieReader{}
+func newEmptyReader() *Reader {
+	return &Reader{}
 }
 
-// node retrieves the rlp-encoded trie node with the provided trie node
+// Node retrieves the rlp-encoded trie node with the provided trie node
 // information. An MissingNodeError will be returned in case the node is
 // not found or any error is encountered.
 //
 // Don't modify the returned byte slice since it's not deep-copied and
 // still be referenced by database.
-func (r *TrieReader) Node(path []byte, hash common.Hash) ([]byte, error) {
+func (r *Reader) Node(path []byte, hash common.Hash) ([]byte, error) {
 	// Perform the logics in tests for preventing trie node access.
 	if r.banned != nil {
 		if _, ok := r.banned[string(path)]; ok {
diff --git a/trie/verkle.go b/trie/verkle.go
index 4922e957da6..d51867975c4 100644
--- a/trie/verkle.go
+++ b/trie/verkle.go
@@ -41,13 +41,13 @@ var (
 type VerkleTrie struct {
 	root   verkle.VerkleNode
 	cache  *utils.PointCache
-	reader *TrieReader
+	reader *Reader
 	tracer *PrevalueTracer
 }
 
 // NewVerkleTrie constructs a verkle tree based on the specified root hash.
 func NewVerkleTrie(root common.Hash, db database.NodeDatabase, cache *utils.PointCache) (*VerkleTrie, error) {
-	reader, err := NewTrieReader(root, common.Hash{}, db)
+	reader, err := NewReader(root, common.Hash{}, db)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ func NewVerkleTrie(root common.Hash, db database.NodeDatabase, cache *utils.Poin
 		root:   verkle.New(),
 		cache:  cache,
 		reader: reader,
-		tracer: newPrevalueTracer(),
+		tracer: NewPrevalueTracer(),
 	}
 	// Parse the root verkle node if it's not empty.
 	if root != types.EmptyVerkleHash && root != types.EmptyRootHash {
@@ -326,7 +326,7 @@ func (t *VerkleTrie) Copy() *VerkleTrie {
 		root:   t.root.Copy(),
 		cache:  t.cache,
 		reader: t.reader,
-		tracer: t.tracer.copy(),
+		tracer: t.tracer.Copy(),
 	}
 }
 
@@ -451,7 +451,7 @@ func (t *VerkleTrie) nodeResolver(path []byte) ([]byte, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	t.tracer.put(path, blob)
+	t.tracer.Put(path, blob)
 	return blob, nil
 }